We saw in the previous subsection that for a weakly interacting impurity the drag
force appears only when the impurity velocity is larger than the Landau critical
velocity, which is equal to the velocity of sound
. The situation is, however,
different in the Bethe-ansatz Lieb-Liniger theory of a 1D Bose gas [LL63].
According to this theory excitations in the system actually have a fermionic nature.
Even a low frequency perturbation can create a particle-hole pair with a total
momentum near
. To calculate the drag
force for this case we will use the dynamic form factor of the system
(we follow notation of [LP80], §87). The dissipated
energy at
can be calculated as
For low frequency dissipation the important values of are near
.
According to [NLCC94]
In the general case one can calculate
at small
and
generalizing the method of Haldane [Hal81] for
the case of time-dependent correlation functions. Calculations give
![]() |
(7.54) |
Substituting into
we finally find velocity dependence
of the drag force:
Thus in the Tonks-Girardeau strong-interaction limit and Bose gas
behaves, from the point of view of friction, as a normal system, where the drag
force is proportional to the velocity. On the contrary, in the mean-field limit the
force is very small and the behavior of the system is analogous to a 3D superfluid.
However, even in this limit the presence of the small force makes a great
difference. Let us imagine that our system is twisted into a ring, and that the
impurity rotates around the ring with a small angular velocity. If the system is
superfluid in the usual sense of the word, the superfluid part must stay at rest.
Presence of the drag force means that equilibrium will be reached only when the gas
as a whole rotates with the same angular velocity. From this point of view the
superfluid part of the 1D Bose gas is equal to zero even at
. Notice that in an
earlier paper [Son71] the author concluded that
at
for
arbitrary
. We believe that this difference results from different
definitions of
and reflects the non-standard nature of the system.
Equation
is equivalent to a result which was obtained by a
different method in [BGB01], with a model consisting of an impurity considered
as a Josephson junction. Notice that the process of dissipation, which in the
language of fermionic excitations can be described as creation of a particle-hole
pair, corresponds in the mean-field limit to creation of a phonon and a small-energy
soliton. It seems that such a process cannot be described in the mean-field approach
in the linear approximation.
Experimental confirmation of these quite non-trivial predictions demands a true one-dimensional condensate, where non mean-field effects can be sufficiently large. Such condensates have been investigated for the first time in experiments [SKC+01,GVL+01]. In experiments [GVL+01,SMS+04] condensates have been created in the form of elongated independent ''needles'' in optical traps, consisting of two perpendicular standing laser waves. The role of an impurity in this case must be played by a light sheet, perpendicular to the axis of condensates and moving along them.
Notice also, that application of the additional light waves in this experiments of
this type allows one to create a harmonic perturbation of the form
![]() |
(7.56) |